Developmental Criminology

Full Answer Section

• Social Capital: The social networks, relationships, and shared norms and values within a community or between individuals that can provide support, opportunities, and informal social control, thereby influencing behavior, including reducing crime.
• Propensity: An underlying inclination or tendency towards a particular behavior, such as crime. This concept is central to latent trait theories, suggesting a stable predisposition.
• Latent Trait: A stable, underlying characteristic or attribute that is believed to influence behavioral tendencies over time. Examples often include low self-control or a general propensity for deviance.
• General Theory of Crime (GTC): Developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi, this theory posits that low self-control, in conjunction with opportunities, is the primary cause of all forms of crime and analogous behaviors across the life course.
• Self-Control: The capacity to resist immediate gratification and consider the long-term consequences of one's actions. Low self-control is characterized by impulsivity, a preference for simple tasks, risk-taking, physicality, self-centeredness, and a temper.

Answers to Your Questions:

1. Discuss the basic principles of the general theory of crime.

The General Theory of Crime (GTC), or self-control theory, rests on the following basic principles:

• Low Self-Control is the Primary Cause of Crime: Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that individuals with low self-control are more likely to engage in criminal behavior because they are impulsive, seek immediate gratification, have a low tolerance for frustration, are risk-taking, and lack diligence and persistence.
• Self-Control is Developed Early in Life: The theory posits that levels of self-control are largely established in early childhood through effective parenting. Parents who consistently monitor their children's behavior, recognize misbehavior, and punish it appropriately are more likely to raise children with higher self-control.
• Self-Control is Relatively Stable Over the Life Course: Once established in early childhood, an individual's level of self-control is considered to be relatively stable throughout their life. While the opportunities for crime may change, individuals with low self-control will consistently be more prone to seizing those opportunities.
• Crime and Analogous Behaviors Stem from the Same Underlying Propensity: The theory argues that low self-control not only leads to criminal acts but also to a range of "analogous behaviors" that offer immediate gratification with minimal effort or long-term consequences, such as substance abuse, risky sexual behavior, accidents, and unemployment.
• Opportunity is Necessary for Crime to Occur: While low self-control creates the propensity for crime, an opportunity must be present for a criminal act to take place. Individuals with low self-control will be more likely to seize available criminal opportunities.
• The Theory is General: The GTC aims to explain all forms of crime, at all ages, and in all social contexts by focusing on the fundamental concept of self-control. It does not differentiate between types of crime or offender motivations beyond the pursuit of immediate gratification.

2. Persisters first come to the conclusion that crime seems a reasonable and fruitful alternative to conventional behavior, then act on those beliefs; their decision-making is based on what assumptions? List and explain each.

This statement inaccurately describes the decision-making process of life-course persisters as understood in developmental criminology, particularly within Moffitt's Dual Pathway Theory. Life-course persisters are characterized by early-onset antisocial behavior rooted in a combination of neuropsychological deficits and adverse environmental factors. Their behavior is often more ingrained and less a conscious "decision" based on a reasoned conclusion that crime is a better alternative.

However, if we were to hypothetically consider what assumptions someone who does consciously choose a persistent criminal path might make, they could include:

• Instrumental Efficacy of Crime: The assumption that crime is an effective and efficient means of achieving desired goals, whether they be material wealth, status, excitement, or power. They might believe that criminal activity offers quicker or easier rewards compared to legitimate avenues.
• Low Perceived Risk and High Perceived Reward: They might underestimate the likelihood and severity of negative consequences associated with crime (e.g., arrest, imprisonment, social stigma) while overestimating the potential benefits. This could be due to past experiences of getting away with crime or a distorted perception of risk.
• Negative Evaluation of Conventional Alternatives: They may hold a pessimistic view of legitimate opportunities, believing that conventional paths to success are unattainable, unrewarding, or require too much effort and delay gratification. They might see themselves as disadvantaged or excluded from mainstream society.
• Social Support and Reinforcement for Criminal Behavior: They might be embedded in social networks (e.g., delinquent peers, criminal subcultures) that normalize, encourage, and reward criminal behavior. These networks can provide practical support, shared values, and a sense of belonging that reinforces their criminal choices.
• Justification and Neutralization of Crime: They may develop cognitive techniques to rationalize their criminal behavior, neutralizing feelings of guilt or moral conflict. These justifications might involve blaming the victim, denying injury, or claiming a higher loyalty to their criminal group.

It is crucial to reiterate that this is a hypothetical explanation of assumptions someone might make if they consciously chose a persistent criminal path. Moffitt's theory of life-course persistence emphasizes early-onset and more deeply rooted factors rather than a later, reasoned decision.

3. List five principles of the age-graded theory.

The age-graded theory of informal social control, primarily developed by Sampson and Laub, outlines how social bonds and informal social control mechanisms evolve over the life course and influence criminal behavior. Its five key principles include:

• The Importance of Social Bonds: Strong social bonds to conventional institutions (family, school, work) create "stakes in conformity," which individuals are less likely to risk through criminal behavior. These bonds provide informal social control.
• Age-Graded Changes in Social Bonds: The nature and strength of social bonds change throughout the life course. Childhood bonds to family are crucial, adolescent bonds to school and peers become important, and adult bonds to marriage and employment play a significant role in shaping behavior.
• Turning Points as Opportunities for Change: Key life events or transitions in adulthood, such as marriage, stable employment, and military service, can serve as "turning points" that create or strengthen social bonds, offering opportunities for desistance from crime.
• Social Capital as a Mechanism for Informal Control: These turning points often lead to the accumulation of "social capital" – positive relationships and embeddedness in prosocial networks – which provides informal social control and reduces the likelihood of criminal behavior.
• Cumulative Disadvantage and Its Interruption: While cumulative disadvantage (the accumulation of negative experiences) can increase the likelihood of persistent offending, strong social bonds formed through turning points can interrupt these trajectories and promote desistance, even for individuals with a history of disadvantage.

4. Individuals who sense a deficit of control turn to three types of behavior to restore balance. Identify and explain each.

This concept aligns with Control Balance Theory developed by Charles Tittle, not the General Theory of Crime (which focuses on low self-control as a primary cause of crime). According to Control Balance Theory, individuals strive for a balance between the amount of control they are subjected to and the amount of control they can exercise over others. When an imbalance occurs, individuals may engage in deviant behavior to restore that balance. The three primary types of deviant behavior resulting from a control deficit are:

• Predation: This involves direct forms of control exertion where individuals actively harm or exploit others for personal gain. Examples include robbery, assault, and fraud. Individuals with a control deficit may engage in predation to increase their sense of power and control over their victims.
• Defiance: This involves rebellious or resistant behavior that challenges existing power structures and norms. Examples include vandalism, public disorder, and political activism. Individuals experiencing a control deficit may engage in defiance to express their frustration and assert their autonomy against perceived excessive control.
• Submission: This seemingly paradoxical response involves passive deviance or conformity to the expectations of others, even if it is harmful or exploitative. Examples include substance abuse as a form of escape, or becoming the victim of abuse. Individuals with a severe control deficit may feel powerless and resort to submission as a way to cope with their lack of control.

5. Loeber has identified three distinct paths to a criminal career. Identify and explain each.

Rolf Loeber and his colleagues have identified three distinct developmental pathways to delinquent and criminal behavior:

• Authority Conflict Pathway: This pathway typically begins with early stubbornness and defiance of parental authority. As the child progresses, the behavior escalates to more serious forms of opposition, such as disobedience, arguing, and running away from home. This pathway primarily involves conflict with authority figures and may or may not lead to serious delinquency.
• Covert Pathway: This pathway involves more concealed or "underhanded" delinquent acts that often begin with minor forms of secret misbehavior, such as lying and shoplifting. The behavior then tends to escalate to more serious covert offenses like property damage, burglary, and eventually, potentially more violent crimes. This pathway is characterized by a gradual progression of increasingly serious hidden offenses.

Sample Answer

Definitions:

• Developmental Criminology: An interdisciplinary approach that examines the onset, continuation, and termination of criminal behavior over the lifespan. It focuses on how individual, social, and societal factors interact across different life stages to influence criminal involvement.
• Life Course Theories: A broad perspective within developmental criminology that emphasizes how individuals' lives unfold within social and historical contexts. These theories examine how key life events (e.g., marriage, employment, parenthood) and transitions (e.g., adolescence to adulthood) can influence criminal behavior trajectories.
• Latent Trait Theories: These theories propose that a stable, underlying characteristic or trait (e.g., low self-control, propensity for crime) present early in life influences an individual's propensity to engage in criminal behavior across the life course. This trait is relatively constant, but the opportunities for and manifestations of crime may vary.
• Trajectory Theory: This theory posits that there are different pathways or trajectories to criminal behavior. It suggests that individuals may follow distinct patterns of offending, with some starting early and persisting in crime (life-course persisters) and others engaging in delinquency primarily during adolescence (adolescence-limited offenders).
• Population Heterogeneity: The idea that individuals differ from one another in relatively stable, underlying propensities or traits that influence their likelihood of engaging in crime. This perspective often aligns with latent trait theories.
• State Dependence: The concept that past experiences or states (e.g., involvement in crime, incarceration) can influence future behavior. This perspective emphasizes the cumulative effects of life events and choices on criminal trajectories.
• Problem Behavior Syndrome (PBS): A cluster of antisocial behaviors that may include delinquency, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior, truancy, and early school leaving. This syndrome suggests an underlying propensity for deviance that manifests in various ways.
• Schemas: In the context of criminology, schemas refer to underlying cognitive frameworks or beliefs about oneself, others, and the world that can influence how individuals perceive and interpret situations, and consequently, their behavior, including criminal behavior.
• Integrated Theories: These theories attempt to combine elements from different criminological perspectives to provide a more comprehensive explanation of crime. They recognize that no single theory can fully account for the complexity of criminal behavior.
• Age-Graded Theory: A life course theory, primarily associated with Sampson and Laub, that emphasizes how social bonds and informal social control mechanisms change over the life course, influencing criminal behavior. Key turning points in adulthood (e.g., marriage, employment) can create social capital and reduce criminal involvement.
• Turning Points: Significant life events or transitions (e.g., marriage, getting a job, having children, military service) that can alter an individual's life course trajectory, potentially leading to desistance from crime by establishing new social bonds and responsibilities.
• Cumulative Disadvantage: The accumulation of negative experiences and disadvantages over the life course (e.g., poverty, poor education, involvement in the criminal justice system) that can increase the likelihood of continued criminal behavior and limit opportunities for prosocial development.