Full Answer Section

• Concepts: Mental categories or groupings of similar objects, events, or ideas. The concept “dog” encompasses many breeds.
• Symbols: Abstract representations, like words or numbers, that stand for something else. The word “tree” represents a physical tree.
• Schemas: Mental frameworks that organize our knowledge about the world. A “restaurant schema” includes expectations about ordering food, paying, etc.
• Scripts: Schemas for familiar sequences of events. The “morning routine script” might include waking up, brushing teeth, eating breakfast.

3. Logical vs. Natural Concepts:

• Logical Concepts: Well-defined rules or criteria determine membership. A square is a four-sided figure with equal sides and angles. These are often formal and rule-based.
• Natural Concepts: Concepts formed through everyday experience, often fuzzy and with unclear boundaries. “Fruit” is a natural concept; some fruits are sweeter than others, and the classification can sometimes be ambiguous (is a tomato a fruit?). These are often formed through experience and are more flexible.

4. Mental Strategies for Effective Problem-Solving:

• Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution if followed correctly. A mathematical formula is an algorithm.
• Heuristic: A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies problem-solving but doesn’t guarantee a solution. “Look for the most obvious clues” is a heuristic.
• Means-End Analysis: Breaking a problem down into smaller sub-problems and working towards the goal step-by-step.
• Working Backwards: Starting at the desired solution and working backward to figure out the necessary steps.
• Analogies: Using solutions from similar past problems to solve the current one.

5. Mental Roadblocks to Problem-Solving and Decision-Making:

• Functional Fixedness: Seeing objects only in their typical uses, hindering creative problem-solving. Not realizing you can use a hammer as a makeshift lever.
• Mental Set: Getting stuck in a particular way of thinking, even if it’s no longer effective. Continuing to try the same solution even when it’s not working.
• Confirmation Bias: Seeking out information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence.
• Availability Heuristic: Overestimating the likelihood of events that are easily recalled, often due to their vividness or recency.
• Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype or stereotype.

6. Creative Thought Processes and Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking:

• Creative Thought Processes: Often involve preparation (understanding the problem), incubation (letting the problem sit), illumination (the “aha!” moment), and verification (testing the solution).
• Divergent Thinking: Generating many different ideas or solutions to a problem. Brainstorming is a form of divergent thinking.
• Convergent Thinking: Focusing on finding the single best solution to a problem. Multiple-choice tests rely on convergent thinking.

7. Applying Problem-Solving Skills to Creative Problem Solving:

• Example 1 (Cooking): You’re out of a key ingredient for a recipe. Apply means-end analysis by breaking down the recipe and identifying the ingredient’s purpose. Then, use divergent thinking to brainstorm possible substitutes.
• Example 2 (Home Repair): A pipe is leaking. Use functional fixedness to overcome the limitation of seeing tools in just their typical use. A wrench might be used to tighten a screw if you can’t find a screwdriver.
• Example 3 (Work Project): Your team is facing a challenge. Use divergent thinking to generate multiple solutions. Then use convergent thinking to evaluate the solutions and select the best one.

8. Language Components, Development, and Nature vs. Nurture:

• Components: Phonemes (basic sounds), morphemes (meaningful units), syntax (grammar rules), semantics (meaning), pragmatics (social context).
• Milestones: Babbling (infancy), one-word stage (around 1 year), two-word stage (around 2 years), telegraphic speech (short phrases), complex grammar (later childhood).
• Nature vs. Nurture: Nature provides the biological capacity for language. Nurture provides the environmental input (exposure to language) necessary for development. Both are crucial.

9. Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis and Language Uniqueness:

• Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis): The idea that language influences thought. Strong version (linguistic determinism) suggests language determines thought. Weaker version suggests language influences thought. Evidence is mixed.
• Language Uniqueness: While some animals communicate, human language is unique in its complexity, generativity (ability to create novel sentences), and displacement (ability to refer to things not present).

10. Intelligence, Tests, and Characteristics:

• Intelligence: The ability to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and use abstract concepts, and solve problems.
• Tests: Stanford-Binet, Wechsler scales (WAIS, WISC), Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
• Characteristics of a Good Test: Reliability (consistent results), validity (measures what it intends to measure), standardization (consistent procedures), and norms (comparison to a representative group).

11. Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities:

Research suggests small differences. Males tend to score slightly higher on spatial reasoning tasks. Females tend to score slightly higher on verbal tasks. These are averages; individual variation is far greater than gender differences. Social and cultural factors also play a role.

12. Extremes of Intelligence and Misuse of Tests:

• Intellectual Disability: Significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, originating before age 18.
• Giftedness: Significantly above-average intelligence.
• Misuse: Intelligence tests can be misused to label individuals, track students unfairly, or perpetuate social inequalities.

13. Major Theories of Intelligence and Heredity vs. Environment:

• Spearman’s g: General intelligence factor underlying all cognitive abilities.
• Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory: Fluid intelligence (reasoning and problem-solving) and crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge).
• Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Several distinct intelligences (linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, etc.).
• Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
• Heredity vs. Environment: Both play a role. Twin studies and adoption studies suggest a genetic component. Environmental factors (nutrition, education, stimulation) also significantly influence intelligence. The interaction is complex.