The terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably, but they do not mean the same thing.
Sex- refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish males from females.
Primary sex characteristics – reproductive organs
Secondary sex characteristics – physical distinctions between males and females that are not related to reproduction (males have lower voices, grow beards, more muscles, etc.)
Gender - Social characteristics that a society considers proper for males or females. So, humans are born male or female, but are socialized to be masculine or feminine. Since gender is culturally learned, expectations associated with gender vary from society to society.
What most accounts for gender differences in behavior? Most sociologists believe that socialization accounts for gender differences in behavior (such as male aggressiveness and female nurturing). Some, however, believe there are also some biological components that account for these differences.
It is important to discuss gender differences because gender is a basis for inequality, or unequal treatment. Around the world gender is the primary division between people.
Patriarchy - men dominating society. Every society in the world is patriarchal.
- Work is divided into gender appropriate categories in all societies
- Of the one billion adults worldwide who are illiterate, two-thirds are women
- No national legislature has as many women as men
- In every nation in the world, women average less pay than men. In the U.S., women are paid 65% of men's wages
- Violence against women continues to be a global human rights issue(historically: foot-binding in China, witch burning, burning a widow over her dead husband's body in India) Current examples include rape, wife beating, female infanticide, forced prostitution, female circumcision, and honor killings.
Theory: Although no one really knows the origins of patriarchy, the dominant theory says that patriarchy was a social consequence of reproduction. Childbearing and child rearing limited women's activities and opportunities, and they stayed close to home raising the children and doing household chores. Meanwhile, the men hunted, traveled, traded, controlled the weapons and engaged in battle. With weapons, items of trade, and contacts with other groups all serving as sources of power, men eventually took over the leadership of society.
U.S. History of the rise of feminism:
Feminism - the philosophy that men and women should be politically, economically, and socially equal. Also, that gender stratification should be met with organized resistance.
In the early history of the United States, women had no legal status separate from their husbands. Women could not vote, own property, make legal contracts, or serve on juries.
The rise of feminism in the U.S. came in two "waves" in the 20th century.
- The first wave in the early 1900s was primarily concerned with winning the right for women to vote (or women's suffrage). The right to vote was won in 1920, and the movement died down and basically dissolved.
- The second wave began in the 1960s as more women entered the workforce and began comparing their working conditions with those of men. The goals of this 2nd wave were broad and included things like equal pay, policies on violence against women, and altering traditional gender work roles.
Women in the U.S. now have more rights than ever before. In the U.S., women now account for 56% of bachelors degrees earned and 58% of all masters degrees. However, many forms of gender inequality still exist:
- Women's sports are under funded and under recognized. (In the 1930s, Babe Ruth made $100,000 /yr as a prof. baseball player. It took until the late 1970s-over 40 years-for the 1st female athlete to earn $100,000. Who was it? Billie Jean King)
- The proportion of women in graduate programs increases with each passing year of graduate school but women in doctoral programs are less likely to complete the program than men.
- Women continue to average less pay than men for equal work. This gap exists at all levels of education.
- Men often use feminine terms to insult each other and devalue women
- Men are more likely to interrupt conversations than women, and to control the conversation
- Of the nations top 500 corporations, only 5 are headed by women
Glass Ceiling- An invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to the top levels at work. Women are stereotyped as being better suited for "supporting roles", so tend to be steered into human resources or public relations positions. Because achievements in these areas don't result directly in corporate profits, their work is less appreciated and rewarded. Also, most women lack strong female mentors - women executives who promote their work and guide them through the corporate culture.
Conversely, men who work in traditionally "women's" occupations (nursing, elementary school teachers, social work) tend to benefit from a "glass escalator". Stereotyped as more capable, and having leadership qualities, they are often promoted more quickly and to higher positions and paid higher salaries.
Sexual Harrassment - the abuse of a position of authority to force unwanted sexual demands or attention on someone. The abuse of power is the central idea. The courts and legal system continue to further define which actions and behaviors constitute sexual harassment. Symbolic interactionists stress that labels affect our perception. Because we now have the term "sexual harassment", we perceive actions differently that people used to.
Women in Politics: Many countries have had women presidents or prime ministers, but in the U.S., women continue to be greatly underrepresented in politics. Since 1789, over 1,800 men have served in the U.S. Senate, but only 33 women have served. Currently, the U.S Senate is 14% women, House is 14%, and only 16% of state Governors are women.
This continues to improve, however. Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi was the 1st woman to be elected as Speaker of the House in the 218 years of U.S. political history. Kamala Harris is our nation's first female Vice-President. Organizations such as The White House Project (thewhitehouseproject.org) and the National Women's Political Caucus (nwpc.org) are nonpartisan organizations that work to try and overcome barriers that block women from being elected to public office. Do you think there will be a woman President in your lifetime? If no, Why? What differences do you think a woman would bring to the office? If there was a U.S. woman president, do you think other nations would perceive this as a strength or weakness?
Some sociologists argue that a new consciousness will develop as gender stereotypes continue to be broken with the continued rise of women's roles in public, politics, the workplace. The distinctions between the sexes won't disappear, but there is no reason for biological differences to be translated into social inequalities.