Full Answer Section

• Incentive Theory: We are motivated by external rewards or incentives (e.g., money, praise).
• Cognitive Theories: Focus on the role of thoughts, expectations, and attributions in motivation (e.g., expectancy theory, goal-setting theory).
• Humanistic Theories: Emphasize personal growth, self-actualization, and fulfilling one’s potential (e.g., Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

2. Types of Psychosocial Needs:

Psychosocial needs are needs related to our social and psychological well-being. Examples include:

• Achievement: The need to excel and succeed.
• Affiliation: The need for social connection and belonging.
• Power: The need to control or influence others.
• Intimacy: The need for close, personal relationships.
• Self-esteem: The need to feel good about oneself.

3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

Maslow’s hierarchy is a pyramid of needs, with basic needs at the bottom and more complex needs at the top:

• Physiological Needs (Base): Food, water, shelter, sleep, air.
• Safety Needs: Security, protection, stability.
• Love and Belonging Needs: Intimacy, friendship, family.
• Esteem Needs: Self-esteem, confidence, respect from others.
• Self-Actualization Needs (Peak): Fulfilling one’s potential, personal growth.

4. Hunger and Appetite Regulation:

Hunger and appetite are regulated by complex interactions of biological, psychological, and social factors:

• Biological: Hormones (ghrelin, leptin), brain regions (hypothalamus), stomach contractions.
• Psychological: Learned preferences, emotional state, stress.
• Social: Cultural norms, social settings, availability of food.

5. Causal Factors in Obesity:

Obesity is a complex issue with multiple contributing factors:

• Genetics: Predisposition to obesity can be inherited.
• Environment: Access to healthy food, physical activity opportunities.
• Lifestyle: Dietary habits, exercise levels.
• Psychological: Emotional eating, stress.
• Social: Cultural norms, socioeconomic factors.

6. Eating Disorders:

• Anorexia Nervosa: Intense fear of gaining weight, distorted body image, severe food restriction.
• Bulimia Nervosa: Binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors (purging, excessive exercise).
• Binge-Eating Disorder: Recurrent episodes of binge eating without compensatory behaviors.
• Causes: Complex interplay of genetic, psychological, social, and cultural factors.

7. Sexual Response Cycle:

• Excitement: Increased heart rate, blood flow to genitals.
• Plateau: Intensification of excitement.
• Orgasm: Peak of sexual pleasure, release of tension.
• Resolution: Return to baseline state.

8. Sexual Orientation Continuum:

Sexual orientation is viewed as a continuum, ranging from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual, with varying degrees of bisexuality in between.

9. Causes of Sexual Dysfunctions:

Sexual dysfunctions can have physical or psychological causes:

• Physical: Medical conditions, hormonal imbalances, medications.
• Psychological: Stress, anxiety, relationship issues, past trauma.

10. Components of Emotions and Basic Expressions:

• Components: Physiological arousal (heart rate, sweating), subjective experience (feelings), behavioral expression (facial expressions, actions).
• Basic Expressions: Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust.

11. Gender and Cultural Influences on Emotions:

• Gender: Some differences in emotional expression due to social norms and expectations.
• Cultural: Display rules dictate which emotions are acceptable to express in certain situations.

12. Factors in Human Happiness:

• Relationships: Strong social connections.
• Meaning: Sense of purpose and fulfillment.
• Accomplishments: Achieving goals.
• Gratitude: Appreciating the good things in life.
• Mindfulness: Being present in the moment.
• Physical Health: Good health contributes to well-being.
• Financial Security: Having enough resources to meet basic needs.

13. Brain Processing of Emotions:

The limbic system, particularly the amygdala, plays a key role in processing emotions, especially fear and anger. The prefrontal cortex is involved in regulating emotions.

14. Major Theories of Emotion:

• James-Lange Theory: Physiological arousal precedes the experience of emotion (e.g., we feel fear because we tremble).
• Cannon-Bard Theory: Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously.
• Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Emotion is determined by physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal of the situation.

15. Emotional Intelligence:

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. It’s important for social relationships, work success, and overall well-being.

16. Polygraph:

The polygraph measures physiological responses (heart rate, sweating) believed to be associated with lying. However, it’s not perfectly reliable, as physiological arousal can be caused by other factors besides deception.

17. Anger Management Techniques:

• Deep breathing: Calming the physiological arousal.
• Cognitive restructuring: Changing negative thoughts.
• Problem-solving: Addressing the source of anger.
• Assertive communication: Expressing needs and feelings respectfully.
• Relaxation techniques: Meditation, yoga.